Blog Elements : IFR Focus

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An actual instrument approach to minimums

February 21, 2025/by Eric Radtke

During your instrument training, you routinely fly instrument approach procedures to “minimums” under simulated conditions. The more likely scenario when flying under instrument flight rules (IFR) is the option to complete the flight under visual flight rules (VFR), flying a visual approach procedure, or flying an instrument procedure in which you acquire the runway visually well above the charted “minimums.”

IFR Holding Procedures Explained: A Pilot’s Guide to Holding Patterns

February 21, 2025/by Eric Radtke

Maximum holding speeds in knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) have been designated for specific altitude ranges. Often pilots can avoid flying a holding pattern or reduce the length of time spent in the holding pattern, by slowing down on the way to the holding fix.

An actual instrument approach to minimums

February 21, 2025/by Eric Radtke

IFR Holding Procedures Explained: A Pilot’s Guide to Holding Patterns

February 21, 2025/by Eric Radtke

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An actual instrument approach to minimums

February 21, 2025/by Eric Radtke

During your instrument training, and likely as part of ongoing currency or an instrument proficiency check (IPC), you routinely fly instrument approach procedures to “minimums” under simulated conditions. In the case of a precision approach, this would be to the decision altitude (DA). On a non-precision approach, this would be at the minimum descent altitude (MDA) and the designated missed approach point.

As part of the training routine, at the missed approach point the instructor or safety pilot would typically either call the runway in sight at which point you would transition to landing or call for a missed approach to be flown. This is good practice because a) it is rarely done during your everyday flying b) it is the ultimate test of your basic attitude instrument flying and procedures and c) it demonstrates your capability in handling a stressful, task-heavy scenario in close proximity to the ground.

The more likely scenario when flying under instrument flight rules (IFR) is the option to complete the flight under visual flight rules (VFR), flying a visual approach procedure, or flying an instrument procedure in which you acquire the runway visually well above the charted “minimums.”

Needless to say, I was surprised to be faced with a scenario in which the weather was forecast to be at or below approach minimums on a recent leg from Florida to Cincinnati (KLUK – Cincinnati Lunken Airport). A stationary front with a lot of moisture resulted in a temperature and dew point at an identical 11°C and low IFR conditions. In plain language, it was a soupy mess throughout the Ohio valley in which the morning fog was replaced by mist and low-level clouds.

The fact that low IFR conditions existed throughout the region also made identifying a legal and practical alternate airport a challenge. As a refresher, § 91.169 (IFR flight plan: Information required) requires an alternate airport be filed if, from one after before to one hour after the estimated time of arrival, the ceiling (lowest broken or overcast layer) will be below 2,000’ or the visibility less than 3 statute miles. To be eligible as an alternate airport, if the airport has a precision approach, the ceiling must be at least 600’ and visibility at least 2 statute miles at the estimated time of arrival to the alternate.

In our case, the Lexington Blue Grass Airport (KLEX) met the alternate approach criteria. But to comply with § 91.167 (Fuel requirements for flight in IFR conditions), we had to plan for enough fuel to fly to our intended destination and then fly to the planned alternate airport plus an additional 45 minutes. And we also planned for enough fuel to execute an approach procedure at each airport and considered additional time for vectors and even a potential delay as low IFR conditions can create congestion in busy terminal airspace such as Cincinnati. As you can imagine, this resulted in a substantial increase in fuel required for the flight which we were thankfully able to accommodate.

With our planning complete and passengers aboard, we departed the clear skies and warmth of Florida for the cool cloudiness of the Midwest. Monitoring the destination enroute courtesy of ADS-B, the ceiling and visibility was maintaining just above minimums as forecast. However, after briefing the RNAV (GPS) Rwy 21L approach and beginning our initial descent for Cincinnati, the latest METAR indicated a ceiling and visibility just at landing minimums.

KLUK 062002Z 00000KT 3/4SM R21L/5500VP6000FT BR OVC003 11/11 A2998 RMK AO2 T01110111

While the procedure for the RNAV (GPS) RWY 21L indicates a DA of 756’ (281’ above the airport), a FDC NOTAM raises the DA to 797’ (322’ above the airport) – always check NOTAMS!

FDC 1/3864 LUK IAP CINCINNATI MUNI/LUNKEN FLD, CINCINNATI, OH.

RNAV (GPS) RWY 21L, AMDT 1D…

LPV DA 797/HAT 322 ALL CATS.

We were able to learn through ATC that aircraft were still landing at Lunken airport in spite of the most recent METAR with multiple pilot reports that the weather conditions were “right at minimums.” Given this information, and plenty of reserve fuel, we opted to continue to our planned destination as opposed to diverting to our alternate.

After a magnificent vector from the controller (thank you CVG TRACON), and a stable autopilot-coupled approach, we were approaching our DA. Given a two-pilot crew, the pilot monitoring was able to focus attention on monitoring DA as well as acquiring the required visual contact for landing. Given the conditions, I anticipated being able to see the approach lighting system before the runway and included that information in the approach briefing. In the case of the Rwy 21L, the chart indicates a medium intensity lighting system (MALSR) with sequenced flashing lights – a big help in these low visibility conditions.

At the DA, I was able to see the approach lighting system. Are we allowed to continue?

Yes, 91.175(c) (Takeoff and landing under IFR) allows for flight below the published DA if the approach light system is visible, but only down to 100’ above the touchdown zone elevation unless the red terminating bars or red side row bars are “distinctly visible and identifiable” or the runway environment is in sight which includes:

The threshold.
The threshold markings.
The threshold lights.
The runway end identifier lights.
The visual glideslope indicator.
The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings.
The touchdown zone lights.
The runway or runway markings.
The runway lights.

Within seconds of identifying the approach lights, the runway threshold came into view and we landed in calm winds; however, the advanced planning included having our missed approach altitude set and procedure committed to memory along with rehearsing the action items upon executing the missed which is universal:

Go-Around Power
Go-Around Pitch
Flaps (appropriate setting)
Positive rate/gear up
Navigate
Communicate

And we leave the hangar with the satisfaction of having completed a safe, disciplined flight with the entire system working together from meteorologists, to air traffic controllers to the other pilots in the system willing to share up-to-date vital information via pilot reports. It was a good day on the flight deck!

IFR Holding Procedures Explained: A Pilot’s Guide to Holding Patterns

February 21, 2025/by Eric Radtke

When controllers anticipate a delay, usually due to a high volume of traffic, weather, or both, pilots are usually issued a holding clearance. If the holding pattern assigned by ATC is charted, pilots are expected to hold as indicated. Holding patterns at the most generally used holding fixes are charted on Low or High Altitude En Route, Area, Departure Procedure, and Arrival Charts. When ATC issues a clearance requiring you to hold at a fix where a holding pattern is not charted, pilots are issued complete holding instructions. The holding instructions will include:

the direction from the fix
name of the fix, course
leg length (if distance instead of time)
direction of turns (if left turns are required)
the expect further clearance (EFC) time.

Let’s look at holding clearance example below to identify the various components (note the absence of turn direction indicates standard, right hand turns are expected):

Hold north (direction from the fix) of Volunteer on the 360 degree radial (name of VOR fix and course), five mile legs (leg length), expect further clearance at 15:50 zulu (EFC) time now, 15:40 zulu (current time is often issued as a courtesy so that pilots quickly know how long they may have to hold for fuel planning purposes).

Pilots are required to maintain the last assigned altitude unless a new altitude is specifically included in the holding clearance. Pilots are expected to hold on the inbound course using right turns unless instructed otherwide. In the example instructions above, the INBOUND course would be 180 degrees if holding on the 360 degree radial.

When executing a holding pattern above 14,000 feet, the inbound leg should be 1.5 minutes in duration. When at or below 14,000 feet, the inbound leg should be 1 minute. Timing of the outbound leg should begin abeam the holding fix or at the completion of the turn. Fly the first outbound leg at the appropriate standard duration, then adjust subsequent outbound legs so as to make the inbound leg the standard 1 or 1.5 minute duration. This will vary with wind.

Timing of the holding pattern should be adjusted on the outbound leg so that the inbound leg will be the standard duration.

GPS-equipped aircraft have some additional options for holding. Rather than being based on time, the leg lengths for GPS holding patterns are based on distances. The controller, or the applicable chart, specifies the length of the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is determined by the distance.

Charted holding procedure on the low altitude enroute chart with 5 mile legs specified.

Because the size of the holding pattern is directly proportional to the speed of the aircraft, maximum holding speeds in knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) have been designated for specific altitude ranges. Often pilots can avoid flying a holding pattern or reduce the length of time spent in the holding pattern, by slowing down on the way to the holding fix.

Maximum holding speeds in knots indicated.

Turns in the hold should be standard rate, but not more than 30 degrees. If you are using a flight director, the maximum bank angle is 25 degrees. Except when turning, you should compensate for the wind. Outbound you should triple the wind correction angle used to track the inbound course. This will distort the racetrack shape, but keep you inside the holding pattern protected airspace.

The racetrack pattern will be distored with appropriate wind correction.

The protected airspace is not charted, but it is shaped somewhat like and centered upon the holding pattern. This puts about 60% of the protected area on the holding side, so the majority of your maneuvering should be on this side.

The majority of your maneuvering should be on the hodling side as this is where the majority of the protected airspace exists.

Holding protected airspace is designed based in part on pilot compliance with three recommended holding pattern entry procedures.

Parallel Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from parrell sector, the parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.

When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in the teardrop sector, the teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of one minute, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course.

When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in the direct sector, the direct entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern.

To help determine which sector you fall within when approaching a holding fix, look at where the outbound course falls on your heading indicator or H-S-I when flying direct to the fix. Divide the indicator into three segments as depicted below. And for a standard right-turn hold, and you can visualize exactly what kind of entry is expected.

You can visualize exactly what kind of entry is expected when placing the outbound course on the heading indicator when flying direct to the fix.

The teardrop section is the smallest, only 70 degrees on the right of the nose. At the fix, turn to a heading 30 degrees from the outbound course toward the holding side for one minute. Then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the holding course.

The direct entry section is the largest, covering a 180-degree arc. Simply turn right outbound and fly the pattern.

The parallel segment is 110 degrees to the left of the nose. Turn to the outbound heading, correct for wind if known, fly for one minute, and then turn toward the holding pattern more than 180 degrees. Return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.

This method of visualizing the outbound course on the heading indicator is also referred to as the “thumb” method because placing your thumb to the right (for right-hand turns) or the left (for left-hand turns) will approximate the teardrop entry area as decpicted below.

Placing your thumb to the left or right of your current heading can help identify the correct holding entry procedure.

A non-standard holding pattern uses left turns, and the entry procedure diagram has to be flipped so the teardrop section is in the upper left. For non-standard left turns, use your left thumb to mark the 70-degree teardrop section, and the remaining sections fall into place. Right turns, right thumb.

The entry procedure diagram has to be flipped so the teardrop section is in the upper left for left hand turns.

It’s worth noting that modern GPS navigators can be programmed for holding procedures and coupled with an autopilot, can also fully execute a hold. There are also devices available to help determine the correct entry.

Are you ready to practice? Test your holding pattern entry knowledge in this interactive holding exercise from Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course.

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An actual instrument approach to minimums

IFR Holding Procedures Explained: A Pilot’s Guide to Holding Patterns

An actual instrument approach to minimums

IFR Holding Procedures Explained: A Pilot’s Guide to Holding Patterns

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An actual instrument approach to minimums

IFR Holding Procedures Explained: A Pilot’s Guide to Holding Patterns

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